Transaction Cost Economics free essay sample

Transaction cost economics (TCE) is most associated with the work of Oliver Williamson (see his book The Economic Institutions of Capitalism on the reading list), though he was building on earlier work, particularly by the Nobel prize winner Coase. One reason why the theory is so important is that it represents one of the first and most influential attempts to develop an economic theory that takes seriously the structure of firms. Previously, economic theories tended to treat the firm as a sort of â€Å"black box,† the internal workings of which were not considered to be important. This, of course, contrasts with most other people’s view of businesses, where the internal workings of the organization is given prominence. It is sometimes said that TCE attempts to explain why firms exist. That is, why are some transactions directed by managers in the context of a hierarchy, as opposed to taking place in an open market? It’s more accurate, though, to say that TCE tries to explain the particular structure of a firm, most importantly, the extent to which it will integrate vertically. We will write a custom essay sample on Transaction Cost Economics or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It must be emphasised that while Williamson’s work is very distinctive, it falls well within mainstream economic thinking. It assumes that firms are profit maximising, and that profit maximisation involves costs minimisation. By implication, it is an equilibrium theory. It assumes rationality on the part of owners and/or managers. Where it differs is in stressing transaction costs as well as production costs. Williamson envisions production costs as being analogous to the cost of building and running an â€Å"ideal† machine, while transaction costs are those costs which are incurred by departures from perfection, such as friction. In the economic sector, the ideal machine would be a perfectly efficient market. As you know, such a market requires full information to be available to all parties and perfect competition, among other factors. Departures from this perfection (sometimes called â€Å"market failures†) can result in firms incurring costs when they attempt to buy or sell goods or services. For example, lack of information about alternative suppliers might lead to paying too high a price for a good. Lack of information about a customer’s creditworthiness might result in a bad debt. These are transaction costs. Williamson argues that firms want to minimise their total costs, which are made up of both production and transaction costs. Under some circumstances transaction costs may be lower if the transaction takes place in an open market, which in other situations costs will be lower if managers coordinate the transaction. Williamson’s contribution rests in specifying the variables that determine whether â€Å"market or hierarchy† will have the lower transaction costs in various circumstances. Before discussing these variables, though, we also need to mention the assumptions that Williamson makes that underpin the theory. It is important not to confuse these assumptions with the variables. The assumptions are unchanging contextual factors. They are important in that if these assumptions were not valid, then the arguments about the effects of the variables would not be valid. But the factors mentioned in the assumptions don’t themselves vary, and so they cannot explain variation in organizational structure. Assumptions 1. Bounded rationality 2. Opportunism Bounded rationality refers to the fact that people have limited memories and limited cognitive processing power. We can’t assimilate all the information at our disposal, we can’t accurately work out the consequences of the information we do have. A good metaphor is the game of chess. Despite knowing all the rules which fully specify the game, no one is capable of faultlessly analysing any given position during a chess game. This is partly because the game itself is inherently too complex (there are too many alternatives), and also because the actions of the opponent are unpredictable. Managers face the same problems. No matter how knowledgeable they might be, they cannot consider all the possible alternative courses of action. This is compounded by the fact that in reaching a decision they must take into account how competitors will react. Opportunism refers to the possibility that people will act in a self-interested way â€Å"with guile,† as Williamson puts it. That is, people may not be entirely honest and truthful about their intentions, or they might attempt to take advantage of unforeseen circumstances that gives them the chance to exploit another party. Williamson doesn’t assume that all people will act opportunistically all of the time. He merely assumes that some people will act opportunistically some of the time, and that you can’t tell in advance who is an opportunist and who is not. These two assumptions are important contextual factors, but in themselves they tell us nothing about why a firm will integrate vertically, because they are constant characteristics of our world. These assumptions represent something of a departure from standard economic models, but not a terribly dramatic one. People are still assumed to be rational, in the sense that they want to maximise the profits of the firms they manager, but that there are limits on their ability to make a truly rational decision to achieve this end. Similarly, self-interested behaviour is assumed in traditional economic theory, but guileful behaviour — â€Å"human nature as we know it,† as Williamson put it — is not expected. Variables 1. Frequency 2. Uncertainty 3. Asset specificity The real explanatory power of the theory, though, comes from the three dimensions or variables that are used to characterise any transaction. Transactions can be frequent or rare; have high or low uncertainty; or involve specific or non-specific assets. These three variables will, according to the theory, determine whether transaction costs will be lowest in a market or in a hierarchy. It is easiest to consider these variables with respect to decisions about whether to integrate vertically. Frequency is the most easily dealt with. There will never be a situation in which a firm would want to integrate vertically so as to bring â€Å"in-house† the provision of a good or service that is very rarely used. For example, most firms will not want to set up their own management consultancy departments because they only use the services of a management consultant on a very infrequent basis. If a firm did nevertheless set up its own consultancy, that department would have to try to sell its services to their parties in the periods when it was not doing consultancy within its parent company. But why should we expect such a department to be able to perform better than specialist consultants? In general, we would expect the firms for which consultancy is a â€Å"core competence† to do better. Of course, if firms use consultants frequently, they may decide to set up an in-house operation. National Westminster Bank, for example, have done just this, though they also use external consultants as well. Because frequency is so clear cut, it is usually omitted from detailed discussion. But note that this is not because it is unimportant. On the contrary, the effect of frequency on transaction costs is very strong. It is just that the case where the frequency of transactions is low isn’t very interesting. Uncertainty is more interesting. The issue here is how hard is it to foresee the eventualities that might occur during the course of the transaction. One obvious factor here is the length of time over which the transaction will take place. Transactions that take place on â€Å"spot markets† will have relatively little uncertainty, because one doesn’t have to predict the future. On the other hand, transactions that involve a commitment over some time have some uncertainty built in to them. An example we considered before is the printer agreeing to provide a service to a newspaper publisher. Both parties are likely to want a reasonably long term agreement to enable them to plan. But the very long term nature of the agreement adds to the uncertainty. How can the printer be sure that the publisher won’t go out of business during the life of the contract, thereby putting at risk her investment in a printing press? Uncertainty causes problems in part because of bounded rationality. We can’t foresee all possible eventualities. It might also come about because of information asymmetries: the printer doesn’t know as much about the financial health of the publisher than does the publisher himself. Uncertainty also causes problems because of the danger of opportunism. How does the printer know she can trust any figures that the publisher presents to her? How does she know that, having invested in a press, the publisher won’t try to renegotiate the contract at some future time? What we have to ask ourselves is will uncertainty be reduced by vertical integration? If so, will any savings in transaction costs be enough to outweigh any costs there might be associated with vertical integration — administrative costs, for example? In our example, uncertainty would be reduced by vertical integration of printer and publisher. Asset specificity is perhaps the most important element in Williamson’s theory. He argues that where transactions involve assets that are only valuable (or are much more valuable) in the context of a specific transaction, transaction costs will tend to be reduced by vertical integration. In our example, if transport costs mean that the printer would not be able to compete for business from other publishers, her printing press would be a highly transaction specific asset: it would only be of value in the context of transactions with one publisher. This variable is again only a problem in the context of bounded rationality and opportunism. It is this that makes it risky for the printer to invest in a press. Other things being equal, when transactions involve highly specific assets, transaction costs are likely to be lower in a hierarchy than in a market. The following table gives a summary of the relationship between asset specificity, uncertainty and governance structure. Asset specificity Low for both parties High for both parties High for one party, low for one party Uncertainty High Contract/vertical integration Vertical integration Vertical integration Low Spot contract Long-term contract Vertical integration TCE is perhaps most often applied to understanding vertical integration, but it can often be applied to any internalisation/externalisation question. For example, where employees develop skills â€Å"on-the-job† that are highly firm-specific, these skills can be considered to be transaction specific assets. The transaction in this case is the employment relation. As we know, this can take several forms, from highly temporary (such as seasonal farm work), which is similar to a â€Å"spot market†, to an internal labour market, which is analogous to vertical integration. Criticisms Although TCE is very useful, it is not without its critics. It is important to recognise some possible weaknesses in the theory. 1. The theory assumes that it is possible to neatly separate production and transaction costs, but in practice this is often not the case. More generally, it is often very difficult to measure transaction costs even if they can be defined. . Although TCE assumes that their are limits on the extent to which decision-makers can be rational (that is, it assumes bounded rationality), it still makes little allowance for the other factors that we know affect decision-making. For example, the profit maximising, cost minimising object is not considered to be problematic. In reality, we know that this is not the case. There are often conflicts of interest among managers, the interests of managers and shareholders may not be perfectly aligned, and so on. Consequently, power plays an important role in decision-making. 3. Reputation and trust are not considered. Transactions are treated as though they occur without any knowledge of previous transactions involving the parties concerned. Yet we know that trust does develop between people as they do business with each other. We know that a reputation for trustworthiness is an important business asset that firms will often be reluctant to jeopardise. Therefore, the assumption that we cannot judge ex ante who will be opportunistic is an oversimplification.

How to Celebrate French Candlemas (Jour des Crêpes)

How to Celebrate French Candlemas (Jour des Crà ªpes) The Catholic holiday of Candlemas, celebrated every year on February 2, is a feast of crà ªpes thats meant to commemorate the purification of the Virgin Mary and the presentation of baby Jesus. In France, this holiday is called la Chandeleur, Fà ªte de la Lumià ¨re  or Jour des crà ªpes. Note that this holiday bears no relation to  Lyons Fà ªte des lumià ¨res, which takes place December 5 to 8. A Bit of Fortune-Telling Not only do the French eat a lot of crà ªpes on la Chandeleur, but they also do a bit of fortune-telling while making them. It is traditional to hold a coin in your writing hand and a crà ªpe pan in the other, then flip the crà ªpe into the air. If you manage to catch the crà ªpe in the pan, your family will supposedly be prosperous for the rest of the year. French Proverbs and Sayings for Chandeleur There are all kinds of French proverbs and sayings for Chandeleur; here are just a few. Note the similarities to the Groundhog Day predictions made in the US and Canada: la Chandeleur, lhiver cesse ou reprend vigueurOn Candlemas, winter ends or gets worse la Chandeleur, le jour croà ®t de deux heuresOn Candlemas, the day grows by two hoursChandeleur couverte, quarante jours de perteCandlemas covered (in snow), forty days lostRosà ©e la Chandeleur, hiver sa dernià ¨re heureDew on Candlemas, winter at its final hour The Crà ªpe-Throwing Game Heres a fun way to celebrate la Chandeleur in French classes. All you need are a  crà ªpe recipe, ingredients, paper plates and a small prize, such as a book or a $5 bill. Thanks to a fellow French teacher for sharing this. The day before, ask a couple of students to make a pile of crà ªpes and bring them into class (or make them yourself). For the sake of an even playing field, the crà ªpes need to be the same size, about 5 inches in diameter.Give each student a paper plate and write his or her name on the bottom. The object of the game is to catch a crà ªpe in the very center of the plate.Stand on a chair about 10 feet away from the students and throw a crà ªpe, frisbee-style, for students to catch. Once they catch the crà ªpe, they cant jiggle or flip it to try to reposition it on the plate.After each student has caught a crà ªpe, ask two adults, such as fellow teachers, to come into the  room and judge which crà ªpe is the most perfectly centered.  The winner gets a prize.Then you can all celebrate by eating crà ªpes with an assortment of fillings and/or toppings, which can be  sweet  or  savory.

An Explanation of Chain Migration

An Explanation of Chain Migration Chain migration has several meanings, so its  often misused and misunderstood. It can refer to the tendency of immigrants to follow those of a similar ethnic and cultural heritage to communities theyve established in their new homeland. For example, its not unusual to find Chinese immigrants settling in Northern California or Mexican immigrants settling in South Texas because their ethnic conclaves have been well-established in these areas for decades. Reasons for Chain Migration   Immigrants tend to gravitate to places where they feel comfortable. Those places often are  home to previous generations who share the same culture and nationality.   The History of Family Reunification in the U.S. More recently,  the term chain migration has become a pejorative description for immigrant family reunification and serial migration.  Comprehensive immigration reform  includes a pathway to citizenship that critics of the chain migration argument often use as a reason to deny unauthorized immigrants legalization. The issue has been at the center of U.S. political debate since the 2016 presidential campaign and throughout the early part of Donald Trumps presidency. The U.S. policy of family reunification began in 1965 when 74 percent of all new immigrants were brought into the U.S. on family reunification visas. They included unmarried adult children of U.S. citizens (20 percent), spouses and unmarried children of permanent resident aliens (20 percent), married children of U.S. citizens (10 percent), and brothers and sisters of U.S. citizens over age 21 (24 percent). The government also increased family-based visa approvals for Haitians after a devastating earthquake in that country in 2010. Critics of these family reunification decisions call them examples of chain migration. Pros and Cons   Cuban immigrants have been some of the prime beneficiaries of family reunification over the years, helping to create their large exile community in South Florida. The Obama administration renewed the Cuban Family Reunification Parole Program in 2010, allowing 30,000 Cuban immigrants into the country the previous year. Overall, hundreds of thousands of Cubans have entered the U.S. through reunification since the 1960s. Opponents of reform efforts often are  opposed to family-based immigration as well. The United States allows its citizens to petition for legal status for their immediate relatives- spouses, minor children,  and parents- without numerical limitations. U.S. citizens also can  petition for other family members with some quota and numerical restrictions, including unmarried adult sons and daughters, married sons and daughters, brothers, and sisters. Opponents of family-based immigration argue that it has caused migration to the U.S. to skyrocket. They say it encourages overstaying visas and manipulating the system, and that it allows too many poor and unskilled people into the country. What the Research Says   Research- especially that performed by the Pew Hispanic Center- refutes these claims. In fact, studies have shown that family-based immigration has encouraged stability. It has promoted playing by the rules and financial independence. The government caps the number of family members who can immigrate each year, keeping the levels of immigration in check. Immigrants with strong family ties and stable homes do better in their adopted countries  and theyre generally a better bet to become successful Americans than immigrants who are on their own.

Multilingual Students Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Multilingual Students - Essay Example The question then becomes; how do you teach these students and how do these conditions impact on the teacher’s teaching duties. This paper identifies the strategies to employ in ensuring that children do not feel that their language represents a deficit because it is not the norm. The first problem comes in when grading papers since the teacher could find it difficult due to language errors. Other papers could be understandable but still consist of language errors. Some of the students in the class may also avoid oral participation in the classroom due to fear that their classmates will make fun of their language errors and faulty pronunciations (Ana, 2010). In most cases, this is caused by anxiety while in other cases; the student may be actually difficult to understand. One way of encouraging these students to participate in the classroom is to keep in mind that high-level language acquisition occurs, when the student is taking part in the regular curriculum. Therefore, the teacher needs to avoid using separate language courses for the children at this stage and, instead, support language learning embedded in the normal school and classroom curriculum (Ana, 2010). By modeling good English usage in the classroom, the students will learn a great deal. All students, not only the ones that are multi-lingual, learn concepts much faster if the teacher provides a visual aid in accompaniment of their lesson plans (Ana, 2010). This could be in books, projections on the wall, maps, lists of words, and overheads. The teacher does not need to feel obligated to reproduce all the words they use, but they should give the students an outline of the lesson’s key words and their definitions. As the teacher is speaking, he or she could also draw visual representations on the black or white board. While it may seem that using these aids is a burden to the teacher and adds to teaching time, the preparation actually prevents the occurrence of misunderstandings that t he teacher could actually take more time explaining. The first matter that the teacher should deal with when confronted by a non-English student is his or her survival in school. The teacher should ensure that the student could give his or her name, home phone number and address. The teacher also requires finding out the literacy backgrounds of the close family members and the student. Students who come from backgrounds of English speaking parents or siblings will find it easier to learn English. Additionally, students already literate in their native language, such as Spanish in this case, come to the task of writing and reading English with an enhanced comprehension of writing and reading processes (Ana, 2010). Additionally, students who possess literary skills in their native language skills have the ability to record learnt information in this language instead of attempting to remember everything. The teacher should also attempt to find out the schooling background of the studen t. The information should include whether the student has never learned in a classroom setting prior to coming to his or her classroom, adjusting to the cultural practices and routines of the American school system may require a considerable amount of time and energy (Creese & Martin, 2011). Some of these students may view the school system as unstructured and may not be used to movement around the classroom or even raising their hand before asking

Cultural differences between east and west Germany (1945 - 1961) Research Proposal

Cultural differences between east and west Germany (1945 - 1961) - Research Proposal Example at interest as there are many people who do not understand the reason East and the West Germans behave differently, and the West is more developed than the East especially in governing matters1. History plays a great role in shaping communities and Germany was not an exception especially between 1948 and 1961when most of the differences existed. The study will enlighten many readers and the future researchers and help them understand the problems that faced countries and communities in the earlier times. Germany participated in the killing of many Jews due to racism that characterized the communities3. The importance issues for discussion in this proposal are the highlights of the cultural issues such as the military culture between the East and the West Germany some of which exist today5. There was a strong social and collective mentality in the communist society in the East Germany, unlike West Germans who are individualistic. Religion also brought some differences in that there were few believers in the East in which many are atheist and unreligious4. In West Germany, more people were religious and attended the church and other worship places. The hobbies for the two regions were also different with East Germany loving nudism a lot more than West Germans do. Racism was also common in East Germany, it was rare to find foreigners, and seclusion for the few who existed was common5. The Nazi party persecuted many Jews, killed millions, and split their families by offering the convenient divorce. Even today, racism exists in the East more than it does in the West Germany, for instan ce, the Nazi dressing code that identified them for discrimination4. There are various research methods to use in this proposal to discuss the differences, which exist in the two communities in Germany. First, examination of the available primary sources and lecture notes will assist in gathering enough literature for the study. Secondary sources such as academic journals and other

Stereotypes of women in the play Essay Example for Free

Stereotypes of women in the play Essay Woman in Aeschylus’s Agamemnon are perceived as untrustworthy and ignorant characters. The role of women in ancient Greek life, was considered to be insignificant compared to that of Greek men. And yet, in tragedies, women were often written as major characters, revealing insights on how women were treated and thought of in society. Many well-known Greek plays contain several well-written, complex, female characters. Each female character takes upon herself, the role of villain, the role of victim, and the role of heroine. Drama and theatre in the ancient Greek world expresses the communities’ concerns in regards to their ambitions, fears, hope and their deepest sympathy. In Greek drama, playwrights often included pivotal female roles, despite the fact that the cast was strictly male. The role of women in ancient Greek life is deemed irrelevant compared to that of Greek men, however, in tragedies, women are often written as major characters, revealing important insights on the perceptions and treatment of women in society. For a woman to possess qualities such as leadership and strength is not typical, in fact it is seen as masculine and un-ladylike. Many Greek plays contain several complex female characters; Aeschylus is a playwright whom incorporates a very complex female character, Clytemnestra in his play Agamemnon. Although Clytemnestra is one of the most recognizable and noted female villains due to her involvement in the murder of her husband and his concubine, one can argue that her actions are justifiable. Whether her vengeful actions are triggered by the death of her daughter Iphigenia, her love for Aegisthus or the jealousy of her husband’s mistress Cassandra, either is motive enough to make her turn to evil. There is a quote made by the chorus that suggest evidence that women are incompetent and over emotional for leadership, It is very like a woman in command to concede gratitude before the facts appear: too ready to persuade, a female ranges beyond her boundary, quick to move; but doom is quick for rumour when a woman spreads it, and it is destroyed. (483-487) With these words, the Chorus expresses a stereotyped view of women as emotional and irrational. From my reading of the play as a whole, I asked myself the question did the female characters in the play actually live up to this stereotype? As I pondered upon this I knew the answer was No. The women in this play are fierce and merciless, and do as they wish. Even though they have a dark cloud of gender prejudice overhead they go against this and stand above all. As for the male characters, their are clearly some who are very rational and dont get their hopes up too early; both the Watchman and the Herald seem to fit this description. Based on the way all of the characters in the play are depicted I personally think Aeschylus does not agrees with the Choruss opinion of women. Just like many explore argumentative themes, Aeschulus decided to explore gender inequalities and hierarchies in a time when this topic was importantly relevant. In a patriarchal society like that of ancient Greece, it would be pretty hard to have a play with a fearsome female villain like Clytemnestra and not have the issue of gender play a prominent role. At many points in Agamemnon, we hear characters utter stereotyped views about women, but it isnt clear how much Aeschylus endorses these. For example, the Chorus frequently remarks on how women are irrational and dont pay attention to the facts. The Chorus members intend this as a criticism of Clytemnestra, but do we really see her being irrational or making factual mistakes? Evil though it is, Clytemnestras murder plot definitely required careful (i. e. , rational) planning, and she was right about the signal fire from Troy, which the Chorus doubted. Also, the Chorus is majorly wrong in mistaking the appearance of Clytemnestra for what it really means, when they cant believe she will be Agamemnons killer. Clytemnestras actions do, however bear out another cultural stereotype in the play: that women are untrustworthy. (Of course, it could also be said that Agamemnon is untrustworthy, since he sacrificed his own daughter. ) At the end of the play, when the Chorus makes fun of Aegisthus by calling him a woman for not going to war and using deception to get back at Agamemnon, does this question or reinforce stereotypes? Absolutely. There is many similarities between Aeschules’s Play on gender inequality and stereotyping and experiences of those of the 1950’s. The role of women in the 1950 was repressive and constructive in many ways. Society placed high importance and many expectations on behavior at home as well as in public. Women were supposed to fulfill certain roles, such as a caring mother, a diligent homemaker, and a obedient wife. The mother was supposed to stay at home and nurture so society would accept them. The basics of the inept woman were: the woman driver, the over-spender who cannot budget, and the basic downfall of man. This all ties back to the women in Agamemnon, despite the male characters never ending humility and doubtfulness of intelligence the women, there is a strong prevalence and honor for the female sex among woman. Here is a poignant example of strong clystamnestras femininity†¦ I cried out my joy long ago, when the first night-messenger of fire came telling of Ilions capture and destruction. And someone said in reproof, Have beacon-watchers persuaded you to think that Troy is now ransacked? Truly like a woman to let her heart be lifted! Words such as those made me seem astray; nevertheless I went on sacrificing, and people in all parts of the city shrilled cries of joy in womens custom, in grateful triumph, lulling the fragrant flame that devoured their sacrifice at the gods seats. And now, for the longer account, what need have you to give it me? I shall learn the whole story from my lord himself; and I must hasten to give my revered husband the best of welcomes now he has come back. For what light of day is sweeter to a wife to see than this, with the gates opened up when god has brought back her husband safely from campaign? Take this message away to my husband, to come as soon as possible; he is the citys beloved darling. As to his wife, I wish he may find her when he comes just as faithful in his home as the one he left behind, the houses watch-dog to him while hostile to ill-wishers, and similar in everything else, with no seal broken in the length of time; and I know no more of pleasure from another man, nor talk of blame, than I do of dipping bronze. There you have my boast; its fullness with the truth makes it no shame for a woman of my nobility to proclaim. (587-614)| | I’ve quoted this entire long speech by Clytemnestra because of the sheer wealth of conflicting images of femininity it offers. At the beginning of the speech, we see her offering a counterargument to the sexist stereotypes presented by the Chorus in the previous quotation. Contrary to how they claim women typically behave, Clytemnestra says that she was right about the fact that Agamemnon was coming home, and so hadnt gotten her hopes up for no reason. She drives this point home by saying that she doesnt want to hear any more secondhand information, but will wait to hear what her husband has to say when he gets home. For the rest of the speech, she interweaves various ideas of traditional femininity, pointing out how much she loves her husband, and how faithful she has been to him while he was gone. Aeschylus’s Greek tragedy, Agamemnon stereotypes of women in the play are quite evident. There is no rug sweeping of this topic at all, instead the reader is greeted with this issue at the beginning of the play. It seems like every male character especially the chorus are brash on the females and encounter them is unworthy, unintelligent and forgetful subhuman. Male characters in Agamemnon do not in the slightest take anything women say seriously and believe the right place for them in caring for baby and the home, similarity to that of the stereotypical housewife of the 1950’s. To much astonishment the women in the play prevail against all preconceptions about them. Probably the most is Clytamnestra, who killed her husband because he sacrificed her beloved daughter to succeed his army. Clytamnestra was a strong woman and never apologized for what she did, but admitted to it with dignity and honor. Women of Agamemnon serve as a fine example to the idea that even though women might be placed in a situation that has placed in a unfair hierarchy of gender, we women must triumph and overcome biases just like our sisters have done for millenniums; we must be brave and endure so we can succeed and show that we can do and be just about anything.

Blogs - Blogging for Change Essay examples -- Internet Online Communic

Blogging for Change History itself has always fundamentally been encompassed by the history of writing. Before writing there was no history, but ever since then writing has shaped it in complicated and far reaching ways. The progression of writing, from simply a method of counting left to the elites in society to a universal communication system that allows people to share and explain ideas, has had tremendous historical implications. With the invention of the computer, came the Internet and in turn the web log. The web log is a new platform for writers to communicate with. It can allow for a running correspondence between people complete with remarks and instant access. The question is what does this new software tool mean for the history of writing? If using a web log becomes wide spread it would result in a gradual change in the way which people write. People would base their writing on their feelings and emotions rather than logical arguments. However, despite all the irrational statements , the exposure to other people's ideas would stimulate debate about controversial issues and help people understand the details about complex topics so that they could better formulate their own opinions. Despite any immediate accessibility to web logs, changes like this are not going to happen over night. It will take time and people will have to change their habits, but it could happen. To understand the direction that writing will take with the introduction of blogging technology, the foundation of writing must be discussed first. The invention of writing first came about in Sumerian civilization as a means to count various goods, and the progression of the writing in Sumer developed from roughly 8000 to 3000 B.C. (S... ...et said and discussed, even the bad ideas, so that they can be acknowledged and refuted. Discussions on controversial topics will expose people to new points of view and culturally enrich their thinking and give them a better understanding of the world. The stereotypical lazy uninformed modern day citizen could become aware of issues around the world and more politically active with wide spread use of the blog. In a world where everybody is forced to discuss things, where there is not any option besides discussion, it seems like peace is possible. Maybe if the real world were just a little bit more like a blog, where violence just simply is not an option, then the world would really know what it is like to be civilized. Works Cited Schmandt-Beeserat, "From Accounting to Written Language" in The Social Construction of Written Communication (pp. 119-130)

The Timeout Process

The implementation of the timeout processes could well be the most important procedure to be introduced to the operating theatre in recent times. This seemingly small change has had a dramatic impact on patient outcome, staff cohesion and cost reduction in medical institutions. However, there are still issues that are obstructing the effectiveness of the timeout, namely poor compliance by some team members who believe that the fast turnover of cases does not allow for the timeout, that they have never had a problem in the past or that the timeout is questioning their competence.This essay will look at the positive outcome that the timeout process has had in the operating theatre, why it is working and how to ensure that it remains a priority. The writer will also address the problem of poor compliance by some members, why they are resistant to the timeout process and what can be done to ensure their co-operation thereby creating a positive outcome for more patients. In order to place the checklist process in a proper perspective the following historical event is provided: In aviation, pilots have been using checklist since 1935.It was formulated after the crash of the new Boeing Model 299 on its test flight, which killed two of the five crew members. One of the fatalities was Major Ployer P. Hill the Air Corps’ Chief of Flight Testing. The ensuing investigation ruled that the accident was pilot error and not mechanical failure. As the result of this ruling a group of test pilots took it upon themselves to investigate the reason for the pilot error.They concluded that the new technology had a lot more sequential steps for the pilot to follow than the older aircrafts, which made it easier for Major Ployer P. Hill, a highly experienced pilot, to have missed a crucial step. The solution they formulated to rectify this dilemma was a simple checklist. By following this checklist the Model 299 was flown for 1. 8 million miles without an accident. Gawande (2010, p. 32 – 34). Likewise, the nursing profession has been using checklists in various forms, from the implementation of routine recording of vital signs to medication charts.However, it was only in 2001 that a critical care specialist, Peter Pranovost, decided to formulate a simple checklist to try and reduce central line infections in the ICU at the John Hopkins Hospital, where he was working at the time. Peter Pranovost and his colleagues monitored the results of their idea for a year. In that time the ten-day line infection rate went from 11 percent to zero. They proceeded to test other checklists with equally impressive results. (Gawande 2010, p. 7- 39) Several studies were done on surgical outcomes that showed that about half of the complications experienced could have been prevented through the use of this checklist. In these studies it was shown â€Å"that in industrial countries major complications occur in 3% to 16% of inpatient surgical procedures, and permanent disa bility or death rates are about 0. 4% to 0. 8%. In developing countries, studies suggest death rates of 5% to 10 % during major operations.Mortality from general anaesthesia alone is reported to be as high as one in 150 in parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Infections and other postoperative complications are also a serious concern around the world. † WHO (2007). In 2007 the World Health Organization (WHO) decided that something must be done to improve the situation A team of experts, led by Dr Atule Gawande, was brought together to find a solution. They formulated the surgical checklist and challenged the world to use it. The group investigated the impact of the WHO checklist in eight hospitals worldwide, four in high-income settings and four in low and middle-income settings. Data on in-hospital complications occurring within the first 30 days after surgery were collected prospectively from consecutively enrolled adult patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery, 3733 before and 3955 after the implementation of the checklist. The overall death rate was reduced from 1. 5% to 0. 8% (P= 0. 003) and in-patient complications from 11. 0% to 7% (P< 0. 001)†. Haynes (2009) What does this surgical checklist entail?As stated by WHO â€Å"The checklist identifies three phases of an operation, each corresponding to a specific period in the normal flow of work: Before the induction of anaesthesia (â€Å"sign in†), before the incision of the skin (â€Å"time out†) and before the patient leaves the operating room (â€Å"sign out†). In each phase, a checklist coordinator must confirm that the surgery team has completed the listed tasks before it proceeds with the operation†. Many institutions worldwide have adopted the surgical timeout; they have changed a few points of the WHO checklist to better meet their needs, with impressive results.A study following 8000 surgical procedures, found that the implementation of the timeout resulted in a 30% reduction in the rate of surgical complications and deaths (Hayes 2009). Not only has patient mortality and expenditure decreased but its application showed an increase in staff cohesion. The surgical checklist has helped to increase communication by ensuring that all members as a team take the time to check and discuss potential problems and expected outcomes for the patient.This enhanced interaction between the multidisciplinary team lends itself to the staff’s increase awareness of potential problems and adverse conditions, which contributes to improved patient outcomes. Taylor (2010) surveyed operating room staff and found a perceived improvement in communication, teamwork, respect and patient safety related to the use of the timeout. Improved patient outcome following the implementation of the surgical checklist has been clearly demonstrated within Veterans Affairs (Neily et al 2010) as well as in the Netherlands (deVries et al 2010) and Iran (Askarian et al 2011).In the Netherlands study by deVries, it was found that most postoperative complications declined and that this decline could be credited to improved communication. An interesting outcome was that rates of bleeding and anastomotic leaks also declined as well as technical problems which occur primarily at the surgeons hands. The findings of this study suggest that the indirect effects of implementing checklists may be much more important than their specific content. (Birkmeyer 2010) Improved communication leads to respect for each team member and trust in each other.To maintain a high degree of efficacy all staff members should be provided with continuous education and evaluation of their performance. All members should therefore be informed and have access to the data that shows the benefits of using the surgical checklist. This will prevent the staff from becoming complacent. However, complacency is not the only obstacle preventing the success of the surgical checklist, poor or even non c ompliance is of greater concern. There are a number of reasons for this. A checklist implies that mistakes can and do happen.In a study which investigated medical professionals’ attitude to the safety systems 30% of nurses and doctors stated that they ‘did not make errors’. (Sexton 2000; p745-9) A great number of medical personnel have this misconception that they do not make mistakes or they feel that admitting to mistakes, no matter how minor, will lead to their colleagues loosing respect for them and some fear being punished as the medical profession as a whole has a low tolerance for errors. These feelings can cause staff members not to report minor incidences; unfortunately many minor incidences can lead to major problems.The hierarchy system that exists in the theatre environment also leads to poor compliance with regards to the surgical timeout. Although nursing in theory is now deemed to be a profession that works alongside doctors, not for them or subser vient to them, in practise this is not always the case. When there is resistance from the surgeon or anaesthetist toward the checklist this resistance is expressed verbally in an active ridiculing manner, or non-verbally by just ignoring the process (Valen, Waehle et al 2012, p 4).When this type of attitude is displayed the theatre nurses’ main objective becomes self-preservation and the maintenance of peace, which makes the nurse rush the checklist and omitted points that may cause the surgeon or anaesthetist to become more displeased. If the surgeon and anaesthetist are supportive of the checklist, it is more likely that it will be done correctly. (Mahajan 2011, p161-8) One often finds that staff feel that doing the surgical checklist will cause delays in patient turnover, they also feel that the current system is working for them and their team so why fix what is not broken.The 2010 report by Patient Safety First showed that while most trusts reported that the checklist le d to improved safety and teamwork the most common challenges to its implementation were negative clinician attitudes. (Allard, 2011, p711-17) In the operating theatre setting there are three professions involved, namely, nursing, surgery and anaesthesia and all three are working towards a common result and yet each profession is accustomed to doing this to achieve individual goals.All three are faced with staff shortages, educational duties and economic pressures. (Lingard et al 2006, p 471-83) These pressures lead to the inconsistent use of the checklist. When the checklist process is started all staff are meant to stop what they are doing, thereby giving their full attention to the checklist. However, this is not always the case as team members may be reluctant to alter their work routine and feel that what they are doing is more important, or that if people of the team knew what they were doing the checklist would not be necessary. Amalberti et al 2005, p756-64) If there is no cl ear decision made as to who is responsible for the completion of the surgical checklist, points may not be addressed or in the rush the checklist may just be ticked so that it is complete when it is audited. Vats et al( 2010, p340) discovered that there was confusion over who’s responsibility it was to do the sign-out checks which were frequently missed due to it being at the most time pressured part of the process and also found some checklists to be incomplete, hurried, dismissed or completed without key members participation.As can be seen from the above observations there are a number of factors that lead to poor compliance and this presents a challenge in finding ways to remedy this. It is hard for junior or more timid members of the team to implement the checklist if the more senior or assertive members are not compliant. Paull et al (2009, p 675-78) states that leadership support was deemed the strongest single predictor of successful checklist implementation among six ty four Veterans Health Administration Facilities.When studying the implementation efforts of five hospitals Conley et al (2011, p873 – 79) found that having the department chiefs as members of the implementation team and actively promoting the checklist was a big factor in its success. The senior staff need to lead by example and should be seen actively supporting and participating in this process, which in turn will ensure compliance by the rest of the staff. A team approach is recommended, with the team being made up of respected members of physicians, anaesthetists and nurses.Having all disciplines represented in these teams is important as they are likely to positively influence their peers. (Reinertsen et al. 2007) This team approach removes the need for a nurse to approach a doctor or anaesthetist, which would prove difficult and they would more inclined to ignore the advice given. To ensure the surgical checklist is adopted completely by the multidisciplinary team, it should be first introduced on a small scale, to one team or theatre.This allows for more comprehensive training in the correct way to complete the surgical checklist (Taylor 2010), Positive feedback will filter from the team doing the checklist to the teams not involved, so when they have to start using the check list they will have a positive attitude towards it. This is when changes should be made to the list which will customize it to the institution. The success of the surgical checklist will filter to the other surgical teams, thereby causing wider acceptance and compliance. Langley 2009) Modifying the original WHO checklist will ensure equal participation from all team members and, therefore, creates a checklist that is inherently â€Å"team led†. A feeling of ownership will be cultivated. The WHO published a comprehensive implementation manual (WHO, 2008) to accompany the introduction of the WHO checklist that encouraged modification to fit with local practice, cautio ning against making the checklist overly complex. The Multidisciplinary team members need to receive comprehensive training with regards to how the surgical checklist is to be presented to the other staff members.They need to have clear guidelines as to who will take ownership of the checklist, in many cases it is the circulating nurse. The checklist should ideally not be recited from memory; it should be read from the list. All activity should stop when the checklist is being presented. To maintain the interest and compliance of all staff, regular feedback should be given, namely real-time feedback. As Ursprung et al (2005) cited in their discussion on improving safety, providing real-time feedback is critical for early detection and remediation of problems that may arise.Data should be collected on a regular basis and be correlated, as to provide solid evidence that will provide proof of the goals the staff have achieved and evidence of what still needs to be addressed. Thereby, m aintaining their interest in the checklists importance. The surgical checklist when approached in the proper manner is a simple tool that has the potential to improve patient outcomes expediential. Various studies by A. B Haynes (2009), J. Neily (2010), C.Hayes (2009) just to name a few have shown marked improvement with regards to patient complications and mortality rates. To prevent poor compliance by members there are a number of strategies that can be adopted. Senior members should be seen to actively participate in the checklist process so that the rest of the staff will take ownership of their checklists. To assure the success of the checklist, a small team should be formed comprising of respected members of the three disciplines involved, this will allow for peer interaction.Introducing the checklist on a small scale allows for more comprehensive education and positive feedback to the members not involved. The culture in theatre needs to change, the theory that doctors and nu rses are both professionals in their own rights and neither are boss over the other, needs to be put into practise. The multidisciplinary team in theatre needs to become a team, forget their individual agendas and make the positive outcome for their patients their priority.The surgical checklist will help, as it creates the opportunity for open communication between the multidisciplinary team, which leads to greater respect and trust between the members. With the ever increasing number of surgeries performed each year, the need for quicker turnover times will become greater, therefore without the surgical checklist, surgical complications and mortality rates will increase. It is the opinion of the writer based on the evidence gathered, that the implementation of a comprehensive surgical checklist, should be mandatory for every medical facility in the world.

Descartes vs. Spinoza Essay

What I will do in this following paper is to discuss two very interesting philosophers, Rene Descartes and Benedictus de Spinoza. I will discuss each philosopher’s perspectives and insights on their most recognized theories and thoughts. I will then evaluate them and then give my opinion on the given topic. By doing this, I will contrast the similarities and differences between the two genius minds. By the end of the paper I will have discarded some ideas and opinions from each of the two and will have my own judgment that consists of thoughts from Spinoza, Descartes and my self put together. Themes On Descartes: Existence of God- Descartes’ View – One of the most famous and debatable theories Descartes had was his proof of the existence of God. He had for steps on the ladder to prove this. 1) Everything including our ideas has a cause. 2) We have an idea of God. 3) Nothing less than God is adequate to be the cause of our idea of God. An lastly 4) Therefore God exists. My View – Considering the fact that Descartes was a rationalist and a very religious man, you can see why he would desperately try to make sense of everything, including God. I believe his proof that he has laid out for us that God exists is false. What Descartes is trying to tell us is that our idea of God comes directly from God himself and that we cannot create something in our minds that we have not already witnessed by our senses. But I believe we can implant the idea of God in our minds without God planting it for us. Since man has been on this planet, we have been evolving. I believe our idea of God is a collection of thoughts and ideas that has evolved. Ideas such as security, peace, direction, order, separating good and evil, questions to our existence, comfort, space, answers to questions no one has. It is all these thoughts, ideas and more put together in our minds overtime that create this all mighty powerful being who knows all and is all that we call God. The U-Turn- Descartes’ View – One of the aspects Descartes strived to find was â€Å"certainty†, searching for absolute foundation. He felt in order to come across certainty; we must first doubt everything we know. To help people comprehend his idea, he created the U-Turn as a visual reference to understand. As we go down the â€Å"U† we first doubt common sense, then we doubt awake/sleep since he believes we can’t distinguish the difference. We continue to go down the â€Å"U† by doubting mathematics because there could be an â€Å"Evil Genius† that tricks us into believing something untrue. At the bottom of this U we reach the point where nothing is certain except one thing according to Descartes, which is our existence. He says â€Å"I think, therefore I am†, which means the only thing we can be certain about is our own existence. He then stops and says if we exist, then there must be a God, and this is where the U takes its turn and moves upwards. He then says if God exists he would not deceive us because he is all loving and caring, therefore we have no reason to doubt mathematics, followed by ourselves (body/mind) and lastly we can then be certain about the physical world, no need to doubt it. My View – I find this to be an interesting concept that Descartes has formulated in his mind, one that is most definitely worth thinking about and taking into consideration. But in my point of view, there is a break in his chain. From the moment he mentions we doubt being awake and asleep is where I think his U-Turn collapses. Descartes says we can not distinguish the difference between the two, but that’s only true to a certain point. As humans we have logic, common sense and we are aware of most of the knowledge we obtain. We know that we live a life every day and that we need rest every night; and we know that sleeping is a form of rest which sometimes includes bizarre, twisted, chaotic scenarios which we call dreams or nightmares. The argument he made on this segment of his U-Turn concept was only half true. He was right on the fact that we can not distinguish the difference when in a dream state but wrong on the idea that same goes for when we are awake. As human begins we may not be able to have any reasoning, logic or understand the fact that we are dreaming but when we are not dreaming we can logically know we are awake and be able to know the difference between awake/sleep which means we don’t have to doubt common sense or mathematics anymore. If this is the case then Descartes U-Turn theory is wrong and the idea that the only thing we can be â€Å"certain† about is our own existence is false. Themes On Spinoza: Conception of God- Spinoza’s’ View – Spinoza went on a whole different direction when it came to God. Up to his point in time most people believed in a transcendent God, this meant that they believed in a personal God that was all loving, caring and would not deceive us human beings. People would prey to this personal God for various things like comfort and security, but Spinoza had his own belief. His conception was quite different from that of anyone else. His conception of God was non-personal (Non- Transcendent) and was the totality of everything that is immanent. He explained that our infinite Universe is one that has no outside and is also one big web where everything in it is connected. What he is basically trying to say is that God=Nature, God is the totality of everything that is. My View – Spinoza’s conception of God is quite absurd. There may or may not be a God but if there is, it is definitely not the totality of everything that is. The meaning of God is a higher supreme being that would have a higher consciousness than humans. There is a difference between nature and God. I feel nature is more on the lines of what he is trying to say but uses the word â€Å"God†. God can not be everything that is because then that would mean we are part of the make up of God and that is absurd. How can everything in the universe that has no conception of God be a part of God? His thoughts and ideas on this subject don’t add up in the end and don’t seem like an acceptable solution to the questions revolving around â€Å"God†. Ethics: On Interconnected Self- Spinoza’s’ View – Spinoza said that freedom of choice is an illusion and that everything that happens is part of a necessary order witch is completely rational. My View – If freedom of choice is an illusion and everything is already set to happen before it occurs†¦then why are we making choices in the first place? I believe we do have freedom of choice and that we set our own destiny. Everything will be set but is not set yet. We must make choices and decisions to get to where we want to or do not want to. This can be compared to a video game, the programmer and the player. The programmer sets al these scenarios, levels, obstacles, directions and gives the gamer various choices to make. The player goes through these obstacles, and makes choices where many possibilities are presented to him/her. Ultimately the game will finish one way or the other with the choices that the player makes. All these various different possibilities were laid out (each which had its own outcome) but the player made the decision to get to where he/she is now. Overall Comparison: After taking in everything these two philosophers have presented and evaluating their ideas, I have come up with my own thoughts. I believe Descartes had a much more reasonable and acceptable point of view than Spinoza. Descartes thoughts and concepts were easier to understand and coupe with. I disagree a lot with both of the two but my mind has a greater understanding of Descartes perspective. Spinoza was so special in his own way because of his unique ideas but his concepts on God and ethics seemed to far fetch. Descartes seemed to be on a perfect track until he took a couple things too far like God, trying to prove his existence. If we are to gain knowledge through sense experience then technically we have no knowledge of God, jus a compound of thoughts and ideas to create such a being. Overall I like Descartes philosophical way of thinking more than any other philosopher and feel we can learn a lot from him including helping ourselves to think in a more abstract philosophical manner. Sources Of Information: 1) A History of Western Philosophy : Hobbes to Hume (Second Edition) 2) individual. utoronto. ca/mtlin/god. pdf 3) www. utm. edu/research/iep/s/spinoza. htm 4) http://serendip. brynmawr. edu/Mind/17th. html 5) www. trincoll. edu/depts/phil/philo/phils/descartes. html 6) www. connect. net/ron/descartes. html.

Focus essays

Focus essays The 1940s were a time of drastic social changes throughout the world. Although World War II was centralized in Europe, its effects created a shockwave across America. American Jews faced persecution and anti-Semitism on a daily basis. While some Americans chose to support the Jews, the majority either kept quiet or joined hate groups like the Christian Front. As these hate-groups expanded and their power increased, Americans were forced to take sides. Some tried to ignore the social changes, many joined the masses, and then a few individuals stood up to the oppression. In Focus, Arthur Miller strives to portray the different attitudes and perspectives of Americans during this time of war. Miller uses the characters as representations of different groups all faced with the same problem of anti-Semitism. The main character, Newman, becomes a victim of anti-Semitism when he acquires a new pair of glasses. Gertrude, Fred and Finkelstein represent the various societal responses t o his seemingly superficial, yet complex change. The author uses the main character, Lawrence Newman, as the focal point for anti-Semitism in his epic novel. It is through Newmans eyes that the hostile New York Jew-hating environment of the 1940s can be portrayed. Similarly, Newmans surroundings are able to perceive him through his eyes, more specifically his glasses. From the beginning of the story, Newman begins to undergo a crucial transformation that will forever alter the way he looks at things. Other central characters are key to bringing about this transformation. Everyones reaction to his new glasses, including his own, brings about an extraordinary life-changing experience, where Newman must confront his worst fears. Where as once Newman saw anti-Semitism from the aggressor side, he is now seen as the victim, a Jew. Through this role reversal, Newman can no longer be the apathetic gentile, and he must decide whether to j...

A Crude Awakening to a Ceaseless Dependency in Oil

Crude Oil: It penetrates investor's mind and is increasingly contributing to their fatal dependence. Crude oil: Although it is low cost, it costs money in terms of war, loss of life, and social, social and economic confusion. Crude Oil: We are trying to own Black Gold. What was the beginning of a new traditional product is now a support system for all people. It creates a fantasy that completely changes life, a life without work, a free life, which is the spirit of anesthesia, a vague vision, a source of corruption. Quality in the sea One barrel of crude oil is a hard asset. Even if you are not in the oil industry, you can exchange the oil barrel in the market and exchange goods. However, the value of crude oil is not essential. Hundreds of years ago, before the invention of an engine that could use oil as a fuel, the value of crude oil was zero. One day, if the solar energy becomes cheap enough, the value of crude oil may approach zero again. At the same time, fluctuations in crude oil prices are influenced by current supply-demand situation and prediction of future supply-demand situation. Crude oil, commonly referred to as petroleum, is a liquid on the earth, composed of hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and small amounts of metal. Hydrocarbon is usually the main component of crude oil, its composition varies depending on the type of crude oil and extraction method, but it varies between 50% and 97%. Organic compounds such as nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur normally make up 6% to 10% of the crude oil and metals such as copper, nickel, vanadium and iron account for less than 1% of the total composition. Crude oil is the most common petroleum product in spilled oil. Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and small amounts of sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, and minor amounts of inorganic and organometallic compounds. There are three kinds of hydrocarbons, alkane, alkene, and aromatic. Low concentrations of alkanes can cause anesthesia and anesthesia as well as hi gh concentrations of cell damage and death in marine invertebrates. Olefins are usually not included in crude oil, but are included in refined products such as gasoline. Gasoline is more toxic than alkane, but it is less toxic than aromatic. Aromatic hydrocarbons are not common in nature, but they kill marine organisms not only at maximum intensity but also at dilute concentrations. Aromatic hydrocarbons are the most direct toxic component in oils (Boesch, Hershmer et al., 1974).

John Dalton&apos;s Atomic Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

John Dalton's Atomic Theory - Essay Example John Dalton, born in the 18th century is known as the father of Atomic Theory and is mainly known for his work on the atomic theory and Dalton’s Law for partial gases (Fishman, 2008). By education he was a chemist and later shifted his focus on researching and meteorology. Even though, today advanced research has shown that Dalton’s theory was not absolutely correct, yet we cannot forget his pioneering work that encouraged others to think on the same lines and made progression in the field. After the proposed theory and up to this day any work in the fields of physics or chemistry is very much rooted in the theory. Dalton, was very much fascinated with the properties of gases. It was while doing research on meteorology that we concluded that when water evaporated it existed as an independent gas. He explained that unless both water and air were composed of the same discrete particles it was not possible for both to exist in the air together. This encouraged him to perform a series of experiments with gases, following which he proposed his atomic theory. While introducing his concept he published in the book A New System of Chemical Philosophy that â€Å"We might as well attempt to introduce a new planet into the solar system, or to annihilate one already in existence (Dalton, 1808). In short Dalton proposed four main concepts. Firstly, all matter is made up of minute and indestructible atoms. Secondly, all atoms in similar elements have identical chemical and physical properties. Next he also said that compounds are made up of atoms combining in a fixed ratio and lastly, he proposed that chemical reactions merely include the rearrangement of the constituent particles (Thompson, 1807). On a personal level, I think that Dalton’s work is truly pioneering and phenomenal since a simple evaporation of water instilled questions in his mind about the existence of smaller particles. One of the major drawbacks that can be seen in his experiments is that